23.01.2007 Media market
Media in the Balkans and Turkey
Michał Kuźmiński
The Balkans have long been referred to as a “melting pot,” and for good reason. This region is highly diverse and quite unstable. Consequently, the media landscape here is varied as well. In some places, such as democratic Greece, a member of the European Union, the media market is stable and easy to navigate. In others, like the former Yugoslav states, the situation differs: some, like Slovenia, experience rapid growth, while others are still undergoing difficult beginnings.
Let`s start with a brief overview of the media in four countries: Turkey, Greece, Slovenia, and Croatia. Following this, I will present the experiences of some Yugoslav media that have recently fought for freedom of expression and the right to information.
The country has approximately 69.5 million residents. In 1999, Turkey had 58 daily newspapers, up from just 22 in 1995. The most popular sales method has remained individual purchases, with only 10% of all sold copies going through subscriptions. By 1999, 16 online news sites were active, doubling from the year before. The Turkish press market is undoubtedly still growing.
Turkish law has no regulation over the publishing market and does not impose any antitrust laws to limit the concentration of daily press publishers. Such legislation is still under discussion.
PRESS
Among daily newspapers, the morning edition of *Hürriyet* (Freedom), published in Istanbul since 1948, has the highest circulation, with 542,800 copies in 1995. It is followed by *Milliyet* (Nation), also published in Istanbul since 1950, with a circulation of 334,900.
In the magazine sector, the satirical weekly *Girgir* and *Hibir*, also based in Istanbul, lead in popularity. The third most popular magazine is the English-language economic monthly *Turkey*, with a circulation of 80,000 since 1982. Turkey has eight news agencies, including Akajans in Ankara and Anadolu Ajansi (Anatolian Press Agency) based in Ankara and Istanbul, established in 1920.
RADIO AND TELEVISION (1995 data)
The Turkish Radio and Television Corporation (Turkiye Radyo Televizyon Kurum - TRT), established in 1964, oversees radio and television operations. In July 1993, Parliament abolished the state monopoly in radio and television.
The national radio service operates four national networks and more than fifty local broadcasting stations. The international service is broadcast by Voice of T. Additionally, there is a special educational radio station broadcasting school programs and a station managed by the State Turkish Meteorological Service.
Turkish television has been operating since 1965, with regular broadcasts starting in Ankara in 1968. By 1986, two state channels were broadcasting daily, with three more added in 1989. Turkish television broadcasts in the PAL system.
INTERNET
An interesting media feature is the *Turkey Update* website, published by independent foreign journalists working in Turkey, led by Nicole Pope, a freelancer based in Istanbul who reports for *Le Monde* and many international radio stations. *Turkey Update* provides an overview of the country’s main events and commentary.
It is also worth mentioning the *KurdishMedia.com* website, which has been publishing independent news about the Kurds since August 4, 1998.
With a population of 10.5 million, Greece had 29 daily newspapers in 1999, compared to 24 in 1995. The increase in media outlets is slower than in Turkey, but the market is stable and well-developed. In Greece, 95% of circulation is through kiosks, with only 5% by subscription.
Greek law imposes several restrictions on media consolidation, including limits on the number of media outlets one entity can own. It allows producers to own radio stations and newspapers but prohibits them from owning more than three media outlets.
Antitrust laws prevent the concentration of more than two political newspapers, two local newspapers for different regions, and one Sunday political newspaper under one owner.
PRESS
In Greece, the highest circulation belongs to evening and tabloid newspapers. Most Greek newspapers are published in tabloid format. *Ta Nea*, a daily published in Athens since 1931, reflects the views of the PASOK party and reached a circulation of 132,800 in 1993. The independent daily *Ethnos*, suspended in 1970, resumed publication in 1981 with a circulation of 84,700. Other popular titles include *Apogewmatini*, *To Vima*, *Karimeini*, and many others. The Greek news agency *Athenagence*, or Athens News Agency (ANA), was established in 1896 and has correspondents in major world capitals.
RADIO AND TELEVISION (1995 data)
The public agency Elliniki Radiofonia Tileorasi (ERT S.A.), founded in 1938, oversees radio and television in Greece. The public television broadcasts three channels, ET1, ET2, and ET3. In 1990, two private television stations, Mega Channel and Antenna TV, began operations.
Slovenia’s stable economy has supported the country`s rapid development as it prepares to join the European Union. There is still no organization to monitor the media market, although *Delo*, Slovenia’s largest press publisher, has recently started to take on this task.
Media are consolidating and increasingly attracting foreign investment. The press market`s development is exemplified by *Delo*, which launched a Sunday supplement and added a political, scientific, and cultural section along with a women’s supplement called *Ona*, published alongside *Slovenskie Novice*.
PRESS
In Slovenia, with only two million residents, five daily newspapers were published in 1999, down from six in 1997. The largest titles are *Delo*, *Slovenskie Novice*, and *Vecer*.
The press market in Croatia, with a population of 4.8 million, has recently faced difficulties following the bankruptcy of the country`s largest press distributor, *Tisak*. This situation left publishers unable to recover their sales revenues for an extended period.
PRESS
In Croatia, there is still no national publishers` association. In 1999, 11 daily newspapers were published, including *Zadarski List*, launched in the southwestern city of Zadar in 1999. Like in many regions, kiosks are the main method of press sales. Only 1.6% of Croatians use home delivery, while 4.9% opt for postal delivery.
In addition to major titles like *Vecernji List*, *Jutarnji List*, and the sports daily *Sportske Novosti*, the Italian-language newspaper *La Voce del Popolo* is noteworthy, published six times a week in Italian.
RADIO AND TELEVISION
Croatia has 11 licensed television stations, including all regional and city stations, and around 110 radio stations, some of which are owned by local newspapers.
INTERNET
The number of online newspaper editions doubled from two to four in 1999.
RADIO B92 - Independent Serbian Radio
Radio B92 currently broadcasts in Belgrade. It began twelve years ago as a student radio station and now employs 250 people, producing radio, TV, music, film, and publishing. It was the first in Yugoslavia to launch an internet portal. Due to post-Milošević organizational confusion, B92 now only broadcasts in Belgrade (with a 40% audience share) but is rebroadcasted by other stations throughout Serbia and Montenegro.
Why is B92 so significant? For 12 years, it became almost a symbol of opposition and free speech in Milošević’s Yugoslavia.
HISTORY OF RADIO B92
Founded in May 1989, B92 quickly gained listeners by broadcasting alternative music and, importantly, independent news. After two years, in 1991, it was shut down by the government for its involvement in organizing large demonstrations in Belgrade.
In 1993, B92 and seven other Yugoslav stations formed ANEM, the Association of Independent Electronic Media, to advocate for free speech and information.
During the 1996 protests against Milošević, B92 began music production and established its own cultural venue, Cinema Rex, in Belgrade. In 1996, it became the first internet provider in Belgrade—OPENNET. When it was shut down again that year, B92 moved its news service online, initiating a broad information campaign. This move attracted global support, allowing it to return to the air within two days.
The hardest moment for B92 came in April 1999 when NATO began its bombings. B92’s headquarters and frequencies were taken over by police, and its transmitters sealed. Station head Veran Matić was detained for eight hours. Once again, B92 shifted online, becoming a valuable source of factual information about Yugoslavia`s events, as the official Yugoslav agency Tanjung broadcast only propaganda. During this time, B92 broadcast from the U.S. via satellite and its website, logging over a million daily hits.
In August 1999, B92 returned to the airwaves using borrowed frequencies and began television production. In May 2000, it was shut down for the fourth time. At this point, it moved to a secret studio and began media guerrilla operations. Its radio broadcast and TV program were transmitted via satellite and the internet to other stations affiliated with ANEM, allowing coverage of most of the country. The broadcast was also transmitted just across the borders of Bosnia and Romania.
The station then organized two traveling concerts throughout Serbia, using them to campaign before the August elections. This contributed to the democratic party’s victory, leading to protests, and on October 5, 2000, Serbians overthrew the Milošević regime. On that same day, B92’s radio and television services emerged from the underground.
RADIO B92 TODAY
The ANEM association still exists and now includes 58 radio stations and 37 television stations in Serbia, Kosovo, and Montenegro. It currently campaigns for free media and civil society. B92 produces its own music and operates the Cinema Rex cultural center in Belgrade, which hosts the annual “Ring Ring” new music festival. B92’s film production focuses primarily on documentaries about war crimes in Serbia (the series “Crimes That Changed Serbia”) and resistance movements during the Milošević era (the series “Unknown Heroes”).
Until 1991, Radio and Television Pristina broadcasted in Albanian. However, in 1991, the Yugoslav government mandated Serbian as the sole broadcast language. The only media available in Albanian were the internet-based news service and Radio 21’s satellite broadcasts. The newspaper Koha Ditore was also in circulation.
Since NATO’s intervention in July 1999, over 50 radio stations (including private, local, and regional stations) have been established in Kosovo. However, many of these promote specific ideologies, serving as party affiliates.
Television in Kosovo is not as developed. Aside from Kosovo Television, which is funded by the international community and broadcasts three hours a day via satellite, other Albanian-language channels include Television 21 and Koha Vision.
RADIO AND TELEVISION 21
Radio and Television 21 were Kosovo’s first native, independent media institutions. Based in Pristina, this private, Albanian-language station resumed a 24-hour radio program (98.8 FM) in August 1999 during the post-war repatriation period. On September 22, 2000, Television 21 began broadcasting, expanding countrywide in December of that year.
Its history began in 1995 with a project founded by two women, Afedita Kelmendi and Xeraldina Vula, who conducted an independent journalism course covering print, radio, television, photojournalism, and conflict management for 84 young women.
In 1998, the project evolved into Radio 21 and the Television 21 Production Team. The radio broadcasted via satellite and the internet, while the television team produced short documentaries, “Kosov@: View from Inside,” in collaboration with Internews.
In March 1999, RTV 21’s founders and staff were deported from Kosovo. Radio 21 continued to broadcast on shortwave from Amsterdam and online from Macedonia. When NATO forces entered Kosovo, RTV 21’s team quickly returned to Pristina. The station now broadcasts a live 24-hour program and continues to produce documentaries.
*****
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
1. World Press Trends Yearbook, edition 2000. World Association of Newspapers
2. New General Encyclopedia PWN, 1st ed., 1995-96
3. Kidon Media Link - www.kidon.com/media-link/
4. B92 Radio website - www.b92.net/doc/aboutus.phtml
5. RTV 21 website - www.radio21.net/english/about.htm
6. KurdishMedia website - United Kurdish Voice. www.kurdishmedia.com
7. Kosovo Online, Paweł Płaneta, [in:] Press Review 3-4 (159-160), Krakow 1999
Article published on SAI Media, provided by the Author
MEDIA IN TURKEY
The country has approximately 69.5 million residents. In 1999, Turkey had 58 daily newspapers, up from just 22 in 1995. The most popular sales method has remained individual purchases, with only 10% of all sold copies going through subscriptions. By 1999, 16 online news sites were active, doubling from the year before. The Turkish press market is undoubtedly still growing.
Turkish law has no regulation over the publishing market and does not impose any antitrust laws to limit the concentration of daily press publishers. Such legislation is still under discussion.
PRESS
Among daily newspapers, the morning edition of *Hürriyet* (Freedom), published in Istanbul since 1948, has the highest circulation, with 542,800 copies in 1995. It is followed by *Milliyet* (Nation), also published in Istanbul since 1950, with a circulation of 334,900.
In the magazine sector, the satirical weekly *Girgir* and *Hibir*, also based in Istanbul, lead in popularity. The third most popular magazine is the English-language economic monthly *Turkey*, with a circulation of 80,000 since 1982. Turkey has eight news agencies, including Akajans in Ankara and Anadolu Ajansi (Anatolian Press Agency) based in Ankara and Istanbul, established in 1920.
RADIO AND TELEVISION (1995 data)
The Turkish Radio and Television Corporation (Turkiye Radyo Televizyon Kurum - TRT), established in 1964, oversees radio and television operations. In July 1993, Parliament abolished the state monopoly in radio and television.
The national radio service operates four national networks and more than fifty local broadcasting stations. The international service is broadcast by Voice of T. Additionally, there is a special educational radio station broadcasting school programs and a station managed by the State Turkish Meteorological Service.
Turkish television has been operating since 1965, with regular broadcasts starting in Ankara in 1968. By 1986, two state channels were broadcasting daily, with three more added in 1989. Turkish television broadcasts in the PAL system.
INTERNET
An interesting media feature is the *Turkey Update* website, published by independent foreign journalists working in Turkey, led by Nicole Pope, a freelancer based in Istanbul who reports for *Le Monde* and many international radio stations. *Turkey Update* provides an overview of the country’s main events and commentary.
It is also worth mentioning the *KurdishMedia.com* website, which has been publishing independent news about the Kurds since August 4, 1998.
MEDIA IN GREECE
With a population of 10.5 million, Greece had 29 daily newspapers in 1999, compared to 24 in 1995. The increase in media outlets is slower than in Turkey, but the market is stable and well-developed. In Greece, 95% of circulation is through kiosks, with only 5% by subscription.
Greek law imposes several restrictions on media consolidation, including limits on the number of media outlets one entity can own. It allows producers to own radio stations and newspapers but prohibits them from owning more than three media outlets.
Antitrust laws prevent the concentration of more than two political newspapers, two local newspapers for different regions, and one Sunday political newspaper under one owner.
PRESS
In Greece, the highest circulation belongs to evening and tabloid newspapers. Most Greek newspapers are published in tabloid format. *Ta Nea*, a daily published in Athens since 1931, reflects the views of the PASOK party and reached a circulation of 132,800 in 1993. The independent daily *Ethnos*, suspended in 1970, resumed publication in 1981 with a circulation of 84,700. Other popular titles include *Apogewmatini*, *To Vima*, *Karimeini*, and many others. The Greek news agency *Athenagence*, or Athens News Agency (ANA), was established in 1896 and has correspondents in major world capitals.
RADIO AND TELEVISION (1995 data)
The public agency Elliniki Radiofonia Tileorasi (ERT S.A.), founded in 1938, oversees radio and television in Greece. The public television broadcasts three channels, ET1, ET2, and ET3. In 1990, two private television stations, Mega Channel and Antenna TV, began operations.
MEDIA IN SLOVENIA
Slovenia’s stable economy has supported the country`s rapid development as it prepares to join the European Union. There is still no organization to monitor the media market, although *Delo*, Slovenia’s largest press publisher, has recently started to take on this task.
Media are consolidating and increasingly attracting foreign investment. The press market`s development is exemplified by *Delo*, which launched a Sunday supplement and added a political, scientific, and cultural section along with a women’s supplement called *Ona*, published alongside *Slovenskie Novice*.
PRESS
In Slovenia, with only two million residents, five daily newspapers were published in 1999, down from six in 1997. The largest titles are *Delo*, *Slovenskie Novice*, and *Vecer*.
MEDIA IN CROATIA
The press market in Croatia, with a population of 4.8 million, has recently faced difficulties following the bankruptcy of the country`s largest press distributor, *Tisak*. This situation left publishers unable to recover their sales revenues for an extended period.
PRESS
In Croatia, there is still no national publishers` association. In 1999, 11 daily newspapers were published, including *Zadarski List*, launched in the southwestern city of Zadar in 1999. Like in many regions, kiosks are the main method of press sales. Only 1.6% of Croatians use home delivery, while 4.9% opt for postal delivery.
In addition to major titles like *Vecernji List*, *Jutarnji List*, and the sports daily *Sportske Novosti*, the Italian-language newspaper *La Voce del Popolo* is noteworthy, published six times a week in Italian.
RADIO AND TELEVISION
Croatia has 11 licensed television stations, including all regional and city stations, and around 110 radio stations, some of which are owned by local newspapers.
INTERNET
The number of online newspaper editions doubled from two to four in 1999.
Yugoslav Media Phenomena
RADIO B92 - Independent Serbian Radio
Radio B92 currently broadcasts in Belgrade. It began twelve years ago as a student radio station and now employs 250 people, producing radio, TV, music, film, and publishing. It was the first in Yugoslavia to launch an internet portal. Due to post-Milošević organizational confusion, B92 now only broadcasts in Belgrade (with a 40% audience share) but is rebroadcasted by other stations throughout Serbia and Montenegro.
Why is B92 so significant? For 12 years, it became almost a symbol of opposition and free speech in Milošević’s Yugoslavia.
HISTORY OF RADIO B92
Founded in May 1989, B92 quickly gained listeners by broadcasting alternative music and, importantly, independent news. After two years, in 1991, it was shut down by the government for its involvement in organizing large demonstrations in Belgrade.
In 1993, B92 and seven other Yugoslav stations formed ANEM, the Association of Independent Electronic Media, to advocate for free speech and information.
During the 1996 protests against Milošević, B92 began music production and established its own cultural venue, Cinema Rex, in Belgrade. In 1996, it became the first internet provider in Belgrade—OPENNET. When it was shut down again that year, B92 moved its news service online, initiating a broad information campaign. This move attracted global support, allowing it to return to the air within two days.
The hardest moment for B92 came in April 1999 when NATO began its bombings. B92’s headquarters and frequencies were taken over by police, and its transmitters sealed. Station head Veran Matić was detained for eight hours. Once again, B92 shifted online, becoming a valuable source of factual information about Yugoslavia`s events, as the official Yugoslav agency Tanjung broadcast only propaganda. During this time, B92 broadcast from the U.S. via satellite and its website, logging over a million daily hits.
In August 1999, B92 returned to the airwaves using borrowed frequencies and began television production. In May 2000, it was shut down for the fourth time. At this point, it moved to a secret studio and began media guerrilla operations. Its radio broadcast and TV program were transmitted via satellite and the internet to other stations affiliated with ANEM, allowing coverage of most of the country. The broadcast was also transmitted just across the borders of Bosnia and Romania.
The station then organized two traveling concerts throughout Serbia, using them to campaign before the August elections. This contributed to the democratic party’s victory, leading to protests, and on October 5, 2000, Serbians overthrew the Milošević regime. On that same day, B92’s radio and television services emerged from the underground.
RADIO B92 TODAY
The ANEM association still exists and now includes 58 radio stations and 37 television stations in Serbia, Kosovo, and Montenegro. It currently campaigns for free media and civil society. B92 produces its own music and operates the Cinema Rex cultural center in Belgrade, which hosts the annual “Ring Ring” new music festival. B92’s film production focuses primarily on documentaries about war crimes in Serbia (the series “Crimes That Changed Serbia”) and resistance movements during the Milošević era (the series “Unknown Heroes”).
MEDIA IN KOSOVO - Ethnic Identity
Until 1991, Radio and Television Pristina broadcasted in Albanian. However, in 1991, the Yugoslav government mandated Serbian as the sole broadcast language. The only media available in Albanian were the internet-based news service and Radio 21’s satellite broadcasts. The newspaper Koha Ditore was also in circulation.
Since NATO’s intervention in July 1999, over 50 radio stations (including private, local, and regional stations) have been established in Kosovo. However, many of these promote specific ideologies, serving as party affiliates.
Television in Kosovo is not as developed. Aside from Kosovo Television, which is funded by the international community and broadcasts three hours a day via satellite, other Albanian-language channels include Television 21 and Koha Vision.
RADIO AND TELEVISION 21
Radio and Television 21 were Kosovo’s first native, independent media institutions. Based in Pristina, this private, Albanian-language station resumed a 24-hour radio program (98.8 FM) in August 1999 during the post-war repatriation period. On September 22, 2000, Television 21 began broadcasting, expanding countrywide in December of that year.
Its history began in 1995 with a project founded by two women, Afedita Kelmendi and Xeraldina Vula, who conducted an independent journalism course covering print, radio, television, photojournalism, and conflict management for 84 young women.
In 1998, the project evolved into Radio 21 and the Television 21 Production Team. The radio broadcasted via satellite and the internet, while the television team produced short documentaries, “Kosov@: View from Inside,” in collaboration with Internews.
In March 1999, RTV 21’s founders and staff were deported from Kosovo. Radio 21 continued to broadcast on shortwave from Amsterdam and online from Macedonia. When NATO forces entered Kosovo, RTV 21’s team quickly returned to Pristina. The station now broadcasts a live 24-hour program and continues to produce documentaries.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
1. World Press Trends Yearbook, edition 2000. World Association of Newspapers
2. New General Encyclopedia PWN, 1st ed., 1995-96
3. Kidon Media Link - www.kidon.com/media-link/
4. B92 Radio website - www.b92.net/doc/aboutus.phtml
5. RTV 21 website - www.radio21.net/english/about.htm
6. KurdishMedia website - United Kurdish Voice. www.kurdishmedia.com
7. Kosovo Online, Paweł Płaneta, [in:] Press Review 3-4 (159-160), Krakow 1999
Article published on SAI Media, provided by the Author
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